TSDuck Developer’s Guide

This section describes the common rules on the structure of source files. Additional rules may be defined for various programming languages.

These limits are raw file size, including blank and comment lines, not only source code (but excluding the standard legal headers).

As explained before, simplicity is a key to maintainability. If your file is larger than these limits, it is probably poor quality and you should consider redesigning it.

This is a recommendation rather than a rule because there are pathological cases where it makes sense to list many cases, or rich generic classes with a lot of features and doxygen comments. We must admit that there are some of them in the TSDuck source code.

All lines in the header must start with the appropriate syntax for comment lines in the language of the source file.

Application to TSDuck: the text of the legal header is the following:

As explained before, clarity is a key to maintainability. A new maintainer shall not need to analyze the code to understand it, reading it should be sufficient. The code, its structure and its environment shall be described in comments. Comments must be everywhere, not only in the file header. Write comments both for you and for future maintainers. Explain why you invoke a function; do not assume that the maintainer knows what it is. If you use a specific code structure for a good reason, explain it in comments to avoid a future maintainer to "optimize" it later, breaking your intent.

Comments shall explain the code, not paraphrase it. Do not explain what the code does (no need to explain that i++ increments the variable i). Explain why it does it that way, at that point of the code.

This 30% comment requirement does not take into account the standard legal headers. The 30% proportion of comments shall apply to the description of the specific code and its environment, after removing all standard and non-significant headers. The standard comments which are processed by automated documentation tools such as Doxygen or Javadoc are included in the 30% comment requirement since they describe the actual code.

In the TSDuck source code, C++ source files (.cpp files) contain slightly over 30% comments and blank lines. In the C++ header files (.h files), this proportion is raised to 60%, mostly thanks to Doxygen comments.

When you write the code, you know precisely what you are doing at this specific time. This is the right time to explain what you are doing in comments. When the code is completed, some important thoughts you had when writing the code are already gone.

These tools use specially formatted comments to produce a set of HTML pages or PDF documents with the documentation of all the code. With these tools, it is no longer necessary to write separate detailed design documents; the documentation is automatically extracted from the code.

This is both a cost reduction and a guarantee that the code is consistent with the documentation.

Document everything correctly. A common pitfall is to build the minimum comment structure so that the documentation tool does not complain. The result is a short and obscure description of a function and a list of parameters without description. This is useless. Generate the documentation and read it or have it read by someone else. If the result is not satisfactory, complete the self-documentation comments.

Another pitfall is to modify the code later without applying the corresponding modifications (if necessary) to the self-documentation comments.

The TSDuck project is managed using Git. The reference repository is on GitHub within the organization named tsduck [TSDuck-Source]. Additional Git repositories are available in the same GitHub organization for unitary tests, third-party device drivers, etc.

This is necessary for accurate history tracking.

Example: Git tries to guess the real name and e-mail address of the author of each commit. However, the results are not always brilliant. A safe way to set the proper user identification for git is through the following shell commands:

The modifications are permanent. They are saved in the file $HOME/.gitconfig.

Most revision control systems have automatic ways of excluding dirty files, typically specifying file naming templates.

With Git, excluding dirty files is achieved through .gitignore files. See the man page gitignore(5) for more details.

Executables and objects are compilation products, not sources. They should be ignored in most cases. But UNIX executable files have no defined suffix. It is not possible to set up a global rule to ignore them (like ignoring all *.exe in Windows). Thus, in each directory where one or more executables are produced, there must be a local .gitignore file which contains the exact names of the executables to ignore.

Binary objects or libraries (*.o, *.a, etc.) are ignored by the global rule, at the root directory of the project. When a directory contains a third-party binary for which no source is available, this binary must not be ignored. There must be a local .gitignore file which contains a "not" (!) directive to avoid ignoring this file.

Example: Content of a local .gitignore file illustrating these rules:

Whether you like it or not, English has replaced Latin as the standard international communication language for decades. As of today, Klingon is not yet eligible as a valid international communication language.

Generally speaking, if there is a need for internationalization, external localization files shall be used for non-English messages. There are standard methods for this in the various environments and programming languages. This rule is particularly important for GUI applications which are used by the general public.

Since TSDuck is a very technical project, it is used by engineers who have at least some understanding of English. Consequently, there is no internationalization of the messages in TSDuck.

A module shall be clearly defined by a public interface. This interface defines a contract between the module and its users. This contract shall be clearly described in the module interface, typically in the self-documentation comments. Whenever the module is modified, respect the original contract.

A contract is a contract and you should not be not allowed to break it. If you make substantial modifications in an existing module, you may add features but you should not remove features or change the contract of existing features.

As a general rule, you must ensure that all existing code that could have used your module still compile and work correctly without modification.

For projects with a long history, this recommendation is not always easy to apply. When adding many features or restructuring poorly designed modules, preserving ascending compatibility may create chaos in the code, making it more difficult to maintain in the future.

So, the right balance shall be found. It also depends on the nature of the project. A standard library which is used by thousands of developers and maintained by a large team shall prioritize ascending compatibility. Libraries with very few maintainers and not too many users may choose to prioritize the maintainability of the code, at the expense of ascending compatibility.

TSDuck belongs the latter category. TSDuck went through several code cleanup cycles, taking advantage of new standard features in C++11, C++17, then C++20. In these operations, old features were removed to simplify the code base.

TSDuck is developed in C++ and takes advantage of all OOD features of the language.

The Java and Python bindings follow the same principles.

The interface of a module or class shall expose only public declarations which are part of the contract. Implementation details shall be hidden. Not only undocumented, but logically hidden. Even if you do not document them, someone will discover them in some definition or header file and may use them. Application code trying to use implementation details should not compile.

In C++, implementation details shall be implemented as private fields and methods in classes.

This is an application of the preceding rule. If you need to expose the existence of a data type, you should hide its internal structure. Some fields may be strictly private, for internal use of your module. Some fields may be read-only for the user. Some fields may be modifiable by the user but with some control from your implementation.

And in the future, you may need to redesign the structure of the data type but you will also need to preserve the contract, preserve the logical access to these fields.

Thus, do not expose public fields. Use accessors, also named getter and setter methods.

If you think that this is a loss in performance, you are wrong. Most compilers have the ability to inline the code of a function. If you define an inline accessor method, the generated code will be only a data access. You get the same performance as a public exposure of the field but with a better contract and better maintainability of the code.

If you think that coding and documenting accessors is boring, well, you are right. But many IDE’s can do most of the work automatically for you.

Global variables break the contract of a module. They also break the independence principle. And they also break the reusability principle.

Static variables (in C parlance) are slightly different from global variables since they are not shared between modules. But in the OOD approach, a static variable is shared by all instances of its module. Most of the time, this breaks the reusability principle.

If some kind of persistent unique data is necessary, prefer the singleton design pattern over the static variable.

This section lists a few generic naming conventions which apply to all programming languages. For rules which specifically apply to C++, see section 5.4.2.3.

Usually, naming is addressed by interchangeable conventions. However, these conventions shall be managed by higher level common sense rules.

Example:

This is confusing for the reader and error-prone for the maintainer.

Counter-example: The following sets of identifiers can be easily confused.

This is such an obvious rule that it should not be worth mentioning. However, experience proves that it is not always followed.

Each time, all the time, really, read the corresponding documentation before invoking a function. Even if this is a function you personally developed some time ago. Understand the error cases, the returned error codes, the side effects, the exact usage of the parameters, etc.

Get prepared for reading documentation. Have a shell window ready for a man command, a browser with prepared bookmarks pointing to the online help, Doxygen or Javadoc pages. When coding on a secure network which is not connected to the Internet, make sure that a copy of all online documentations is available on a server within the secure perimeter.

Sometimes, a programmer reads some code and finds it clunky. Some programmers cannot resist the temptation to "fix" the ugliness of the code. This is a dangerous practice. In some cases, this modification may introduce a bug and turns a clunky but perfectly functional code into a buggy one. In front of an existing and operational code, in the absence of other intent such as refactoring or generalization, the question shall never be "is it elegant?" but "does it work?" And if it works, do not modify it.

As a consequence of this rule, do not rewrite existing code for the sole purpose of applying coding guidelines. When the coding guidelines evolve, it would be both counter-productive and dangerous to review and modify the existing code base to retrofit the new coding guidelines. The coding guidelines apply only to new code or code which is modified for valid maintenance reasons.

Do not make hypotheses on the performance of the code. Do not write more complicated code because you think it will be faster. You do not know what the compiler will generate; only the compiler knows. Let the compiler optimize the code. Recent compilers are very good at optimization.

Even if a local construct is slightly more efficient, you do not know the actual impact on the global execution time. It is dangerous to write more complicated code to gain 0.001% of execution time. On the contrary, because the code you write is more complex, it is more error-prone and more complex to maintain.

Write the code using a clean structure. When the final application code is ready, do some profiling in the real context of the application. This will give you the actual bottlenecks in the code. Then, you will know which parts of the code are worth optimizing.

Never assume that a piece of code will work forever on the same type of processor. Even embedded code will eventually be ported on other platforms.

Some CPU architectures are little-endian (Intel), some are big-endian (SPARC, IBM s390) and some can work in either mode (Arm, PowerPC, MIPS). To make provision for future ports, make sure that your code is not dependent on a specific endianness.

The endianness applies only to integer, floating-point data, UTF-16 and UTF-32 characters strings. ANSI and UTF-8 characters strings, cryptographic keys and other types of raw data do not have any endianness; they are just suites of bytes.

The endianness only matters for external data interchange or storage. Write or use serialization and deserialization libraries to switch back and forth between the native and external representations of data. Each programming language has specific ways of handling this gracefully.

Do not make any assumption about performance. For instance, if you handle external data in little-endian representation and your code targets a little-endian CPU, do not avoid serialization routines simply because you think that this would add a useless overhead. Well-designed serialization libraries do not add any overhead when the native and target representations are identical. In this case, the serialization and deserialization routines are inlined empty functions. But using them in the source code is beneficial. When you port the code to another platform with the opposite endianness, the program will work correctly without modification.

It is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to test that a program is truly endian-neutral, especially when the native and external data representations are identical. When possible, test your code on a little-endian and on a big-endian platform from the beginning.

In the case of MPEG transport stream, most data are serialized in big-endian order. TSDuck provides low-level serialization functions for individual values and high-level classes for serialized data buffer management. Make sure to always use them.

Nowadays, most commonly used platforms are little-endian. The only well supported big-endian platform is IBM s390x (this is one of the three best available Linux distros, with Intel and Arm). It is difficult and expensive to obtain IBM s390x hardware. However, TSDuck is periodically tested on emulated IBM s390x using qemu.

A number of design patterns are available in the literature. These patterns are proven constructs. Do not invent hazardous new designs, use proven design patterns. See [GAMMA] for instance.

This is the common root of many security flaws.

Etc. etc. etc.

This is a corollary of the preceding rule: do not assume that a function does what its documentation says it should do. Specifically, if there is a simple way to improve the robustness and security of your code by checking what the other code did or returned, then check.

If you are tempted to write a temporary fix to a problem, do not do that. Take your time and implement the good and final solution right away. Otherwise, because of the daily workload, you will delay the final solution, then you will forget about it and finally your temporary (and most certainly insecure) fix will become permanent.

Counter-example: A well-known product had a random number generation routine which was used to initialize cryptographic operations. The body of this routine was merely something like return 3;. It is clear that the developer intended to implement a proper solution later. But it never came.

When you write a module, the inputs you receive come from an untrusted world by definition. You must always check all inputs. Addresses shall be validated (check null pointers, alignments and range constraints). Numerical values shall be checked for allowed ranges. The size of memory areas and buffers shall be checked. C-strings shall be checked for null termination. The format of special strings shall be checked (date and time, request, etc.)

All functions shall check the validity of all inputs, always, without exception.

Do not assume that the inputs of a function are valid simply because the caller is part of the same application. The caller code may have bugs. The caller code may be modified later and introduce new bugs. Your function can be reused in another context (remember that we encourage reusability) and the new caller may have bugs.

If there is any theoretical, practical or syntactical possibility that some data could be larger than the memory area where you are going to copy it, check the data size, the index or whatever.

Use the capabilities of your programming language to define safe buffer objects with well-designed primitives instead of using raw memory buffers.

In a multi-threaded environment, all threads are not equal. The size of the stack of the main thread is often "unlimited", or at least extremely large, in the multi-mega-byte range. On the contrary, the size of the stack of all other threads is constrained. The default size depends on the platform but it is in the multi-kilo-byte range, much smaller than the main thread.

When you write a function, always remember that it will be potentially used in various environments, single-threaded or multi-threaded, with small stacks or large stacks.

Allocating very large objects on the stack may lead to unpredictable results if they overflow the current stack. If you are lucky enough, the implementation allocates non-accessible guard pages of memory before and after the stack of all threads. Thus, if you overflow a stack by a few bytes, the program will crash with an access violation error. However, if you allocate a very-very large object on the stack, the start of the object may step over the guard pages and lie into the stack of another thread. Thus, accessing the highest parts of your local object, you will corrupt local objects in other functions executing in another thread. Finding such a bug is a nightmare.

This is a corollary of the previous rule. Allocating large objects on stack may overflow the stack of a given thread. Large local objects shall be dynamically allocated on the heap and released before going out of scope.

This is another corollary of the same rule. If you do not explicitly specify the size of the stack of a thread, it will get the default size which is defined by the implementation. And this size is typically different from one platform to another. This means that your code is not deterministic. It may run on one platform and crash on another.

Be very conservative when computing the required size of the stack of a thread. Do not try to be too clever. It is useful to carefully compute the accumulated sizes of all local objects in all nested functions. But what should you do with the result? Clearly, do not use it as the stack size. The stack is cluttered with many stack frames or temporary working data which are allocated by the compiler. This extra size depends on the platform, the ABI, the compiler, the compilation options, etc. In practice, you cannot accurately compute the required stack size. So, use various sources of information. Compute your local data sizes, run tests and measure the maximum stack size and, at the end, double it just in case.

When you define an API, there are cases where the user passes the address of a handler or callback, some code which is developed by the user but which is invoked by your library. If your library creates internal threads and some user handler or callback is invoked in the context of these threads, how do you compute the stack size of the threads you create? This cannot be transparent to the user. In the API of your library, you must give a way to specify the required stack usage of the user handler. The user shall be able to pass the handler code address and the corresponding required stack usage of his handler. Internally, to compute the stack size of your threads, you must add your own usage and the user’s usage.

Most functions return an error code or some indication that the processing failed somehow. Read the documentation of the function and always handle error cases.

This is specifically important for memory allocation routines.

But there are less trivial cases.

Example: Consider file management.

When writing complex functions or module, you may invoke hundreds of external functions. Any of them can return an error situation. In the meantime, you may have opened, allocated, locked or somehow initialized many resources. If each error processing is individual, the code is bloated and potentially insecure.

Write a common error processing path which checks which resources should be cleaned and which safely cleans them.

Object-oriented languages can greatly help you in this process. Carefully designed destructors should always automatically clean up resources.

Avoid deeply nested if …​ then …​ else structures. Avoid multiple processing of the same cases in various places of the code. When applicable (and it is more often that you may think), redesign the code as a state machine.

Passwords, encryption keys and less critical information are stored in memory while being processed. Once the local processing is completed, overwrite the corresponding memory with binary zeroes or random data. If some memory was dynamically allocated on the heap or on the stack, clean it up before freeing it from the heap or returning from the current function.

Most high-level operating systems such as UNIX or Windows use virtual memory. When the physical memory of the system is about to fill, the system swaps or paginates, which means that some memory pages belonging to running processes are temporarily written to disk. If those memory pages contain sensitive data such as passwords or cryptographic keys, this becomes a security breach.

You must ensure that this never happens.

With virtual memory systems, make sure that all data buffers which contain sensitive data are locked in physical memory. Thus, the corresponding memory pages will never be written to disk.

Example: On Linux systems, use mlock() to lock a memory area in physical memory.

Persistent sensitive information usually needs to be stored or exchanged. Storage shall be performed in encrypted form only. Exchanging sensitive information shall be performed using an approved cryptographic protection layer, either individually or using a secure tunnel such as TLS 1.3.

Encryption keys shall be adequately protected. Passwords and other similar data which need to be compared but not retrieved in plain form shall not be stored. Instead a salted hash is stored.

Use approved encryption algorithms only. Also use approved security protocols and approved key management methods only. Never use your own encryption algorithm or security protocol. In case of doubt, ask an expert.

Cryptography is a smoking gun. Encryption and security protocols are hard to secure. Naïve implementations or careless straightforward usage of encryption primitives are known to be vulnerable to various types of attacks.

All the following mechanisms shall be validated by a cryptologist or a security expert before being used:

Basic reusable components increase the productivity and the maintainability of the code. However, using the same component from concurrent threads may lead to race conditions and crashes.

Clearly document whether a component is thread-safe or not.

You may internally implement the required locking feature from the beginning to make the component thread-safe. However, this may have several drawbacks. There may be useless performance degradation in applications which do not share the component in multiple threads. Additionally, the concepts of threads and their associated locking features may be quite different between systems and it is not always easy to write portable thread-safe code.

One option is to write a simple and non-thread-safe component and then write a thread-safe variant of the component. Do not re-implement the component in the thread-safe variant. Encapsulate the calls to services of the non-thread-safe component in the services of the thread-safe variant.

Object-oriented languages with template or genericity features such as C++ and Java may help to write a unique portable thread-safe implementation. The component focuses on its core features only and accepts synchronization primitives or objects as template or generic parameters.

This is a fundamental rule of secure software. It means that a code shall not run with any privilege it does not absolutely require for its nominal execution. In case of security breach, when an attacker takes control of your code, this attacker shall not be able to take advantage of extra privilege.

Example: If an application manipulates files on behalf of a specific user, the process shall have no more privilege than this user. More generally, the application shall run with the identity and privileges of the user it works for.

This is a corollary of the previous rule. Only the operating system or low-level system services need system-wide privileges. There is usually no good reason to use the root or administrator account or whatever privilege to run an application. If you really think that you need to be root, you are wrong. If you really insist, see next rule.

This is another corollary of the same rule. There are rare cases where your application needs to have elevated privileges for a few very specific operations. In that case, use the following scenario:

Example: An HTTP server shall listen on TCP port 80 by default. This port number lies in the system range of ports. On UNIX systems, you need to be root to open this port. If your application implements an HTTP server on this port, it shall be started as root. At the very beginning of the application, opens the port 80. Do not do anything else. Do not work on files or system resources which can lead to security problems if the application is misused. When the TCP port 80 is successfully open, immediately switch to some non-privileged user account like httpd. The open file descriptor of the socket on port 80 is still valid and can be used from the unprivileged user account.

This is yet another corollary of the above rule. When your application is successfully attacked and control is taken by an attacker, the "pwned" application shall not be able to access the rest of the operation system.

Define the required environment for your application; define the corresponding boundaries and lock the environment within these boundaries inside a subsystem without access to the rest of the system. The available confinement mechanisms depend on the operating system.

Example:

Most of the value in software engineering comes from the software reusability and its corollary, development and maintenance cost reduction. Software reusability means generic and reusable code. But writing clean generic code right from the beginning is not natural. The process of producing generic code is typically extending and generalizing existing code into generic software.

This is named refactoring, one of the most important concepts in modern software engineering.

Creating new code from existing code using copy / paste is duplicating, not refactoring. Duplicating code means duplicating bugs, duplicating maintenance costs and more generally increasing the entropy of the system.

Remember: Copy/paste propagates bugs but does unfortunately not propagate fixes.

The presence of multiple persistent branches in the source code repository is a wide-scale variant of the copy / paste syndrome. It multiplies the maintenance costs and ruins the source code consistency. Fixing old bugs becomes a nightmare because of the multiple and divergent branches where the bug is present. Creating a branch may save some time on the very short term but the extra cost on the mid and long term is overwhelming.

Exception: Creating short-lived branches for exploration, integration or tests may be accepted under the firm condition that the branch will be rapidly merged into the main trunk and deleted.

Compilation warnings are never gratuitous. A compiler warning always draws attention to a potential bug. Even if the code works as expected on the tested platform (i.e. the set of compiler & target execution system) the incriminated section of code may fail on another platform. Ignoring tons of uncorrected compilation warnings is a very bad practice. When porting to a new platform, you may have to fix hundredths of bugs that would have been avoided if the warnings were considered in time.

Even warnings which appear to be really harmless after analysis are dangerous because they create a culture of ignoring warnings. A listing of hundredths of "harmless" warnings hides new warnings which may indicate actual bugs.

The most paranoid warning mode depends on the compiler. Different compilers have different options. Some compilers find warnings that some other compilers don’t. As a general rule, fix all warnings from all compilers. Your code must not generate any warning on any platform.

Many compilers have an option which turns warnings into errors. Use it in all code without exception. Thus, the presence of one single warning prevents the code generation.

This seems obvious but this is too often not applied in practice.

Fixing a compilation error or warning is not simply making it disappear. It is tempting to simply find a modification in the source code which gets the compilation message away. But is this the right fix? Does this remove the potential bug that was behind? Did you even understand the potential bug?

Example: You may get an error about a pointer type mismatch or a warning about a comparison between signed and unsigned integers. Of course, casting one object to the appropriate type removes the message.

And sometimes, this is the appropriate fix. But sometimes, this is not.

You need to deeply understand the situation to decide whether you should use a type cast or modify the code structure. Do you understand why if (a < b) produces a warning when a is a signed integer and b an unsigned one (or the opposite)? Do you understand that the underlying risks include an index mismatch leading to a buffer overflow, one of the major sources of security breaches?

If you don’t, do not fix the code yourself, get help first.

This section describes the rules to use GNU Make to build native software on UNIX systems (Linux, macOS, BSD) only.

For most projects, the source tree is complex. Sub-projects, sub-systems, test suites are implemented as sub-directory trees. Some developers work on specific sub-trees while others work the entire project tree (integrators for instance).

Consequently, running make should be possible anywhere in the source tree.

This recommendation applies to "logical entities" only. A library may contain too many files to use one single directory. The source files are spread all over a tree of subdirectories. However, if the compilation of the library is homogeneous, it is acceptable to have a makefile at the root of the library source tree only.

In the source tree, any directory and its entire tree of subdirectories shall be considered as a consistent sub-system to build. See the preceding rule.

Consequently, running make somewhere in the source tree shall build the corresponding subsystem, meaning the current directory and all subdirectories, recursively.

The setup from a common file shall provide the required tools to simplify this process (see next rule).

When a directory is simply an intermediate level where there is nothing to build locally, simply include the common file and nothing more. The first target in the common file shall recurse into the subdirectories.

The actual content of this common makefile is outside the scope of this section. Use a relative path to include the common file since the source code repository can be checked out at different locations on different systems.

Example:

In the TSDuck source code, there is a file named Makefile.inc at the top level of the source tree. It is included by all makefiles, at all levels.

It is difficult to manually maintain such dependencies. Include directives are added and removed from nested header files and there is no reliable way to manually maintain this on the long run. This can lead to subtle bugs when a module is not recompiled simply because its dependency on a recently updated header file was missing.

The idea is to automatically generate a text file module.dep which contains a makefile dependency rule for each module.cpp. The module.dep file lists all header files which are directly or indirectly included by module.cpp. Generating such a file is a feature of the C preprocessor (at least with GCC and Clang).

All .dep are automatically included in the makefile. The makefile automatically regenerates obsolete .dep before including them. This is possible using the GCC or Clang compilers and GNU Make.

In TSDuck, this system is implemented in the top-level Makefile.inc.

Other building systems such as cmake, qmake, MSBuild (Microsoft Visual Studio) implement their own automatic dependency resolution system. Use the one that suits you or use the above method with plain makefiles, but do not try to maintain the dependencies manually.

This rule is similar to the previous one. In a large system, with many source files (there as 2300 source files in TSDuck), it is easy to forget to add new or moved files.

Some source files are not explicitly referenced in the application. In TSDuck, this is the case of all descriptors, tables, filters or plugins. There are hundredths of them and they register themselves in a central repository upon initialization. This means that omitting to build such a source file will not prevent the application from being built. However, subtle bugs will emerge from the absence of a module.

This is why this rule is not a matter of lazyness, avoiding to list source files. This is a functional and security requirement.

Tools such as GNU make have features to explore the source files. There are heavily used in the TSDuck makefiles. Simply adding a source file somewhere in the directory tree under src/libtsduck automatically includes it in the build process of the TSDuck library. Similarly, adding a source file in src/tsplugins or src/tstools automatically builds a new plugin or tool.

Use a unitary testing framework (Cunit, CppUnit, Junit, etc.) For each module, build the corresponding unit tests and integrate them in the framework. Cover most common legal, illegal and limit cases in unit tests.

With TSDuck, the test suite is split in two parts. The first part addresses low-level unitary tests, typically for C++ classes, using a dedicated testing framework named TSUnit. The second part includes non-regression tests for TSDuck commands and plugins. See section 4.1 for more details.

Use a continuous integration framework (Jenkins, for instance) to run all unitary tests nightly and report failures.

With TSDuck, continuous integration is managed using GitHub Actions. See section 4.2 for more details.

Using TDD, each module is written in parallel with its unitary tests. Modern methods such as Agile or eXtreme Programming (XP) advocate that the module and its tests shall be developed in parallel by distinct developers.

The typical scenario is the following:

This approach has several advantages:

Each time a bug is found beyond unit testing, in integration phase or even production, there is a bug in the code. But there is also a bug in the unit test suite because it failed to catch the bug in the code.

The proper fix scenario is:

This method is also well suited to fight the "resurrecting bug syndrome". We have all encountered situations where a bug was fixed in the past but reappears later. This is usually due to some human error with the configuration management system. By enriching the unit test suite with test cases for all known bugs, we are able to detect the resurrection of outdated buggy versions.

TSDuck is open-source software. So, it may seem weird to worry about integrating other open source software. However, all open source software are not equal in terms of usage and integration because they use distinct, and sometimes incompatible, licenses.

Today, a vast amount of generic or reusable software is available for free ("free as a beer") in the form of Free ("free as in freedom") and Open Source Software.

Several topics must be studied when using FOSS:

Many different types of licenses exist for FOSS. The Wikipedia article "comparison of free and open source software licenses" lists more than 40 different licenses. Some of them are obscure or written by legal illiterate programmers and are difficult to understand. Actual legal cases which are based on these licenses are disputed or even contradictory. Therefore, do not underestimate the difficulty.

Generally speaking, there are two main categories of FOSS licenses: permissive licenses (BSD License for instance, as used by TSDuck) and invasive or copyleft licenses (GPL for instance). While the former may be safely used in proprietary software with some care, the latter cannot.

The way the target FOSS is used is also important. A license may apply differently when the FOSS is copied / pasted in source form, statically linked or used as a side component. The LGPL variant of the GPL is typically designed for dynamically linked libraries. But some libraries are LGPL while others are GPL. And some cases are borderline. Dynamic reference (dlopen()) of GPL’ed shared libraries on Linux is a disputed subject for instance.

Because the TSDuck source code is released under the BSD-2-Clause license, it is usually permitted to copy and paste a few lines of code from another project which is released under another permissive license. This license must be compatible with the BSD-2-Clause license. Don’t forget to check and take any requested action, such as mentioning the original author, software, copyright or license. However, it is not permitted to copy source code which is released under a restrictive license such as GPL or LGPL. These licenses are not compatible with permissive licences such as the BSD licences.

Finally, the type of deployment of your software matters. For proprietary software which is distributed outside the company where it is developed (commercially or even for free), the license of the FOSS applies. But for internal proprietary tools which are never distributed, you may usually do what you want. This rule does not apply to community projects such as TSDuck but it is worth remembering.

As a rule of thumb, FOSS with a permissive license such as TSDuck may freely use other FOSS with another permissive license. However, using FOSS with a restrictive license must be done with care:

As an example, libreadline is one of the few libraries with a GPL license, not LGPL. As a consequence, a BSD-licensed software such as TSDuck cannot use it. Fortunately, there is an equivalent library named libedit with almost the same features as libreadline and a BSD license. Therefore, TSDuck uses libedit instead of libreadline.

In all cases, this subject is too complicated for us, the developers. In case of doubt, get a legal advice first.

This is the usual UNIX vs. Windows or LF vs. CR-LF line format. All compilers on Windows understand files with LF as line delimiters. On the contrary, some compilers or interpreters in the UNIX world have problems with CR-LF line delimiters. The bash shell, for instance, considers the CR as part of the line.

Most editors and IDE’s have an option to force the usage of LF as line delimiters, even on Windows systems.

Automatic clean-up scripts should be used on a regular basis on the code base to convert CR-LF sequences into LF.

Exception: When working with Git, it is possible to automatically switch back and forth between LF and CR-LF during check-out and commit on all or selected types of text files. This feature is managed though the autocrlf configuration option and .gitattributes files in the repository tree. If you use that feature, make sure that text files are committed with LF lines. If you want some Windows-specific text files (such as .sln or .vcxproj files) to be committed with CR-LF, make sure to properly reference them in a global .gitattributes file, as used in TSDuck.

In source code, the indentation is essential. It is tempting to use tab characters to indent. However, the size of a tab character may vary between tools. Most system tools use 8 characters per tab. But many IDE’s use 4 characters (the usual single indentation width). When editing a source file, depending on the typing and automatic indentation features, the result is often a mixture of tabs and spaces in the indentations. When such a file appears correctly in an IDE with 4 spaces per tab, for instance, the same file appears totally messed up in an editor with 8 spaces per tab.

Most editors and IDE’s have an option to force the usage of multiple spaces instead of a tab.

Automatic clean-up scripts should be used on a regular basis on the code base to convert tab characters into spaces (but a uniform tab width must be applied and may not match the original environment).

Exception: The presence of an actual tabulation character is required in some specific file formats such as makefiles. But most editors and IDE’s can handle this exception.

There is always some misunderstanding between the characters in a text and their binary representation in a file. In the most general case, a character is universally represented by a 32-bit UNICODE value. But files are rarely represented in UTF-32 format.

When a file is transferred between systems or accessed from a shared disk by multiple heterogeneous systems, the physical content of the file remains the same but the various operating systems or production tools often interpret this physical content in different ways, leading to unpredictable results.

The following rules attempt to mitigate this problem.

There are few reasons to use characters outside the 7-bit ASCII set in software source files. The syntax of all modern programming languages uses ASCII only. All identifiers and comments shall be written in English which is ASCII only. Any people name in comment (author, developer, etc.) shall be used without accent or local "decoration".

It is sometimes required to use international texts. Always uses specific internationalization files for non-English languages. The actual format of these files depends on the toolset. Unless specified otherwise by a toolset, always use the UTF-8 encoding for these files. When present, the option "UTF-8 without BOM" should be used.

When the syntax of a file format allows the explicit specification of the character encoding, use it to specify UTF-8.

Example: All XML files shall be saved in UTF-8 format and start with:

Exception: Some tools may impose or generate files using their specific encoding. Always use the character encoding which is the safest one for such tools.

C is an old and unsafe language. C++ is much safer than C. It is possible to improve the safety of C using all advanced features of ANSI C99 and the most paranoid warning mode of the C compiler, but C will never be as safe as C++.

Good reasons to use C instead of C++ include:

All other reasons are usually bad reasons.

If you need at least two essential reasons to use C++ instead of C, one is named constructors and the other one is named destructors. These features are the essential bases of safe coding and they are not available in C.

For the record, the very first version of the ancestor of TSDuck, back in 2005, so-called "TSDuck V1", was developed in C. When the code base grew, this quickly appeared to be a fatal mistake. All the code was scrapped and rewritten in C++, starting "TSDuck V2".

There is a common misconception that C++ code is slower than C code. This is wrong. The confusion comes from the fact that C++ has much more features than C and seems more complicated. But more features do not mean more generated code.

Most C++ features are source-level structure and safety. If you are compiler aware, you realize that the generated code overhead is insignificant. It is quite possible to write good object-oriented C++ code with performance in mind.

As an example, a good object design involves lots of very small methods. But if you declare them as inline, you get the performance of C with the features of C++.

This is the natural C++ implementation of a module. A module must have exactly one public interface and one implementation. There is one file for each.

Exception: In some cases, there is no need for an implementation and the .cpp file is not present, everything is present in the header file. This can be the case where the module contains declarations only, or template methods or classes, or when all functions and methods are short enough to be declared inline.

This simplifies maintenance.

It is not possible to declare an inner class in a different header file from its enclosing class. To keep the one-to-one association between .h and .cpp files, the definitions of the inner class methods are implemented into the same .cpp file as the enclosing class.

If the type is private, it should not be useable by any other module. If the type were declared in a header file, even a specific one, different from the module.h public interface, it could be included by another module and used outside its normal scope.

In the case of C++ "private" declarations, the syntax of the language requires to declare them in the class declaration, meaning in the header file of the class. However, being private, these declarations cannot be used outside their outer class definition, which preserve the data type hiding rule.

Thus, the successful compilation of module.cpp validates two important points:

You cannot manage how your header will be used. The compilation of a user application which includes your header file shall never generate an error simply because of your header.

Use case: A user code explicitly includes your header module.h as well as some other header other.h. If this other.h happens to also include your module.h, there must be no error.

In C++, the #pragma once is defined for this purpose. The old C tradition of conditional compilation using #ifdef MODULE_H is outdated and should be avoided.

Example: C++ header file module.h:

This means that a header file must include all other header files which are needed by the declarations it contains.

In a C header file, do not use C++ reserved names.

In a C header file, all language constructs which are specific to C or otherwise incompatible with C++ shall be conditionally compiled using the predefined macro __cplusplus (with two leading underscores). This macro is defined by the compiler when the compilation occurs in a C++ environment.

In a C header file, all C declarations which generate a reference to a linker symbol (function or data) shall be enclosed in extern "C" {…​} when compiled in C++.

Example: The following structures are inserted at the beginning and end of the declarations in the C header file:

This avoids name clashes and namespace pollution.

This is the C++ equivalent of static declarations in C. Note that static has a different meaning in C++ and should not be used for that purpose.

Example:

If you do that, there will be one static variable per module where the function is used, breaking the semantic of the static attribute.

Most of these topics are covered by coding conventions in section 5.4.2. However, a few topics are clearly rules rather than conventions because they impact the reliability and good understanding of the code.

This avoids the name clashes during the link. In TSDuck code, everything is defined in the namespace named ts or in one of its inner namespaces.

This avoids ambiguities. This also avoids some portability issues, especially with Visual C++ on Windows platforms.

All C++ standard entities must be referenced with the std:: prefix.

Remember that there is no need to explicitly specify the namespace to reference an entity which is declared in the current namespace or an outer one. Therefore, inside the source code of TSDuck, it is not necessary to repeat the prefix ts:: everywhere. Only third-party applications need to use it.

This indicates an explicit reference to the default namespace and avoids ambiguities with entities which are declared in the current namespace or an outer one.

Example:

This is confusing. The trailing code can easily remain unnoticed.

Example:

See also next rule.

A common problem with the C syntax /*…​*/ is the potential absence of closing */. In some cases, the subsequent lines of codes are silently "swallowed" by the comment, up to the end of the next comment. Such bugs are very difficult to track.

By using the // syntax, all comments automatically terminate at the end of line.

Counter-example:

In this example, the instruction b = 2; is excluded from the compiled code. Good luck to find the bug!

Omitting the braces is dangerous for the maintainability of the code. If the indentation is incorrect or if the unique statement in the block is complicated or spans multiple lines, omitting the braces makes the code hard to understand.

Notes and anecdotes:

This is the C++ way. Preprocessing macros shall not be used for constants in C++. Use preprocessing macros only for conditional compilation or for numerical values which are evaluated in the context of conditional compilation.

Exception: Usual constants such as 0 and 1 which are used in obvious contexts (reset, increment) shall be used without names since they are self-explanatory.

This avoids compilation ambiguities.

Example:

This avoids compilation ambiguities.

Example:

Macro preprocessing is only text substitution. When the actual parameter of a macro has side effects, it is evaluated as many times as referenced in the macro definition while the caller expects exactly one evaluation.

Example:

Exception: There are macros which are reserved to specific usages where the actual parameters are not general-purpose expressions but must be lvalues or special syntactic structures.

Alternative: When it is required to reference a macro parameter several times, you cannot use a macro. You should implement a real function and declare it inline. See next rule.

This is the C++ way. This avoids all macro substitution pitfalls which are described in the preceding rules.

There is no difference in terms of code size or performance. The generated code for inline functions is expanded inline, just like a preprocessing macro. If the inline function is not used, no code is generated.

This is more consistent with directives containing multiple conditions or #elif directives. For complex conditions, the code is more compact and more readable.

The #error will draw the attention of the developer when the code is compiled in a new environment which was not previously addressed. The developer who does the porting can precisely locate where there is some specific work to do.

Example 1: A simple list of mutually exclusive alternatives, ensuring that one branch is taken.

Example 2: A more complex list of alternatives. But exactly one symbol must be declared at the end.

The following two code excerpts are perfectly valid according to the C and C++ standards and have identical effects. However, in the bad code example, it is not clear that the line declares objects which are not int (the last two variables are a pointer and an array). It is also not clear that j is pre-initialized to zero while i is not.

Do you know what ++p->a means? Does it increment the pointer first and then dereference it? Or does it dereference the pointer first and then increment the pointed field? Actually, the second alternative is right. But how many maintainers will know that?

By the way, did you even know that the self-increment operator ++ has distinct precedencies when it is used as a prefix or a suffix?

Example: Adding theoretically useless but helpful parentheses:

The switch/case implicit fall-through path is a rare and confusing construct. Most of the time, no break at the end of a case is a forgotten one, i.e. a bug. By allowing implicit fall-through paths, we cannot clearly identify if a missing break is a bug or a feature. So, to be safe, we forbid it.

Exception: It is allowed to have no break when there is no instruction at all after the case. This situation is not a real fall-through, this is a case with multiple equivalent values.

Example:

In TSDuck, when allowed as a compiler option, the implicit fallthrough paths are detected and rejected using the appropriate warning configuration.

These constructs shall remain rare and reserved to cases where any other structure would be even more confusing.

Example:

This ensures that unexpected values are always processed, typically with an error processing.

This is especially useful when the switch is applied on all values of an enum type. You may think that the default alternative is useless since all values are handled. However, what will happen when you update the enum type and add a value? If several switch statements are used in various modules, you will probably forget to update the list of cases in one of them. Without default alternative, the new value will be silently ignored and the bug will be either hard to find or (worse) remain undetected. In the presence of a default alternative which triggers error code, the run-time error will immediately detect the bug.

In TSDuck, when allowed as a compiler option, the absence of default alternative is detected and rejected using the appropriate warning configuration.

Do not declare a local variable in a switch case without enclosing { } block. The scope of the local variable extends to the subsequent entries in the switch, which is usually not what you indented.

Note that the C and C++ languages have distinct interpretations here.

The implicit interpretation of an integer or pointer value as a boolean is confusing. Sometimes, the "common interpretation" is even the opposite of the reality.

Example: The common sense is that a function which returns a boolean value would return true on success and false on error because the word "true" reveals a positive feeling while "false" reveals a negative one. Many UNIX system calls do not return a boolean value. They return an integer which is zero on success and a non-zero error code on error.

See how this can be confusing.

Same reasons as the preceding rule.

This is confusing. The lazy reader will misinterpret if (a = b) as if (a == b). So, assign first, then use the resulting variable in the conditional expression:

In TSDuck, when allowed as a compiler option, an assignment in a boolean expression is detected and rejected using the appropriate warning configuration.

Anecdote: A long time ago, someone attempted to introduce a backdoor in the Linux kernel, pushing code containing something like if (proc->uid = 0) {…​}. The careless reader could thing that the kernel code tested if the caller was root. If practice, the code forced to the caller to become root, which was a severe security breach. If you need only one reason for this coding rule, use this anecdote.

This is more readable and easier to maintain.

Example: Loop indexes should be declared inside the for statement when possible:

This avoids lengthy initial declarations which are not immediately useful. This also gives you a chance to declare the variable as const for instance.

This is faster to execute. In the case of the initialization by assignment, the default constructor is first invoked, then the assignment operator is invoked.

Example: Objects b, c and d have an identical initial value. But the initialization of b is faster.

In the case of objects c and d, the default constructor does something which is immediately undone by the assignment operator.

Sometimes, the compiler may optimize this but do not count on it since a deep code analysis of the constructor and assignment is required to allow this optimization. Without this deep source code analysis, the compiler does not know if the semantics and side effects of the default constructor plus assignment are equivalent to the copy constructor.

The goto statement is the most discussed and infamous construct in computer software history.

Possible exception: The only acceptable exception is a common error path within one function, at the end of the function, after the return of the normal (non-error) path.

However, this should be reserved to special cases, when working on low-level system calls, in the presence of multiple potential error cases, when using another more complex structure would be even more confusing. In modern C++ code, using structured objects with a proper destructor should prevent this.

Example: Valid and (possibly) acceptable usage:

Very long functions are hard to understand and maintain. They should be redesigned to extract local treatments in other well documented local functions, even if these local functions are called only once.

Exception: A very large switch construct with a lot of short entries may be acceptable. In fact, breaking it apart into several functions may be less maintainable.

Passing a parameter by value is legal but it requires copying the parameter value, typically on stack. While this is harmless for elementary types (integers, floats, enums and pointers), it can be costly for structured types.

In C++, this can even be devastating with polymorphic types (classes with at least one virtual function) when the type of the formal parameter is a superclass of the actual parameter. In this case, we get the slicing problem: the pointer to the vtable and the superclass parts are copied while the derived parts are not. The result is an inconsistent object with virtual methods possibly using fields that do not exist. In C++, the common way is to pass such parameters by reference (a C++ specific mechanism, not to be confused with passing by address or by pointer in C).

Example:

The code is more readable, mode compact, and less error-prone.

Example:

Exception: There are cases where the iterator is required for intermediate operations of specific processing at the end of each iteration. This is the case when it is necessary to insert or remove elements in the list in an iteration.

This saves the useless copy of a temporary object.

Example:

To detect as many potential errors as possible directly at compilation time, use strict types and attributes on all declarations and definitions.

This applies to parameter declarations in function profiles and in object declarations.

Example 1: A value is computed once and reused later without modification.

Example 2: If a reference or pointer value is used to access a read-only area (at least through this pointer or reference), use the const attribute. This is especially important for function declarations since this establishes a more precise contract with the caller.

This guarantees that the generated code will not optimize the access to the variable by caching it in a register for instance.

The compiler can hardly guarantee an atomic access on such types and there is a risk to get randomly corrupted values.

Redesign the code so that accesses to non-elementary types are explicitly synchronized.

The order of the const attribute, the type name and the * sign makes the difference. This is often the source of obscure compilation error messages.

Example:

It is more readable to use type declarations:

The C and C++ standards do not define the implementation of the int, short, long types and their variants (unsigned, long long, etc.).

Specifically, the types int and long are known to have different sizes on different platforms. Using them reduces the portability of the code by introducing subtle side effects on large values.

Of course, in the presence of a legacy library which uses int or some of its variants in an API, you are obliged to use the same type for the data which are used with this API.

Use the following standard types when the size of integer values matter. They are defined in the standard headers stdint.h and inttypes.h.

This is the standard definition in the C/C++ language. The C and C++ standards define size_t as the return type for the sizeof operator. The modern C/C++ standard libraries use this type in the profile of their functions for size values.

The actual implementation of size_t differs from one platform to another. It has typically the same size as a pointer. But there is no unique correspondence with the built-in integer types.

For instance, some 64-bit platforms define int as 32-bit and long as 64-bit while other 64-bit platforms define both int and long as 64-bit. But in all cases, size_t is 64-bit on these platforms. This is especially true when porting between Windows / Visual Studio and Linux / GCC.

So, there are clearly at least three distinct sets of integer semantics:

Variant: The standard type ssize_t declares a signed integer type of the same size of size_t.

Do not use char to represent array of bytes, use either int8_t or uint8_t. Do not use char to represent characters outside the 7-bit ASCII range. In the context of internationalization, the binary representations vary. This can be a dedicated 8-bit character set (Latin-1, Latin-9, etc.) or some binary representation of UNICODE (UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32, etc.)

In all cases, the management of internationalized character strings shall be encapsulated into some dedicated library.

In TSDuck source code, the types ts::UChar and ts::UString implement Java-like characters and strings (UTF-16 with surrogate pairs).

The type unsigned char represents nothing. It has no semantics at all.

Either a data is an ASCII character and it is a char or it is a byte and it is an int8_t or uint8_t.

Example:

It is important to understand why using the L suffix is essential in integer literals which are used in the context of an expression the final type of which is long. Consider the following example.

You may think that l1 and l2 have the same value. This may be the case. But they don’t on some platforms where l1 gets 4294967296 (the expected value) while l2 gets zero.

Why?

On some platforms, int is a 32-bit value while long is a 64-bit value. In the case of l2, the intermediate context into which the literal is evaluated is int since i is an int. So, the literal 0xFFFFFFFF is first evaluated into the context of an int and its value is -1. The addition is performed on int values, giving zero. Finally, the result is promoted to long, staying zero.

On the contrary, in the case of l1, the literal is explicitly of type long because of the trailing L suffix. Thus, the intermediate context into which the addition is performed is long. This time, i is first promoted to long and then the addition is performed on long values, giving the expected result.

Portability issue: The L suffix is the standard way to represent long literals. But we discourage the usage of predefined integer types (see the corresponding rule above) for portability reasons. For integer types which are explicitly smaller than 64 bits (int8_t, int16_t, int32_t, etc.), using int literals is usually safe. For explicit 64-bit integer types (int64_t, uint64_t), it is recommended to use the suffix LL in literals. The corresponding value is of type long long. The size of this type is not guaranteed either but it is at least 64 bits on all known implementations.

This is the only non-ambiguous way of specifying a null pointer.

The old macro NULL was specified for the C language, not C++. Early specifications of the C++ language commanded to use the literal 0 for null pointers. This has led to many ambiguous or incorrect code since this literal has two distinct semantics: integer zero of type int and null pointer to any type.

In TSDuck, when allowed as a compiler option, using zero as null pointer literal is detected and rejected using the appropriate warning configuration (e.g. option -Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant with GCC and Clang).

The enum types are strictly defined in the C and C++ standards. Specifically, in the absence of explicit numerical value, enum values are defined as implicitly consecutive numerical values. It is safe for C/C++ code to compare enum values using < or > operators.

If you change the order of the declarations in an enum type for simple aesthetic reasons (sort in alphabetical order for instance), you change the semantics of the type and you potentially break the user’s code. This is why re-ordering the values of an enum type should be avoided.

If you add a new value in an enum type, think about why you add it:

Example:

This facilitates the maintenance if the implementation changes someday.

In the above example, if a 16-bit integer becomes too short some day for a Foo index, just change the type definition. Otherwise, you would have to change all references to uint16_t as uint32_t in all variables which have the semantics of a Foo index and only those uint16_t. Needless to say that the probability to introduce a bug at this stage is very high.

The using syntax is more clear than typedef. The type name is clearly isolated before the = sign.

With typedef, in some complex cases such as function pointers, the type name is buried into the type definition and not easy to spot.

Assertions are statements which are inserted in the middle of executable code. They assert a condition and abort the execution if this condition is false. Assertions are included in the generated code under some specific compilation options and removed by the compiler for the final production code.

Assertions are very useful to check the consistency of the code.

Assertions are debug tools exclusively. Removing them shall not change the semantics of the code.

An assertion shall be used only to check the internal consistency of the code. This means that an assertion shall be used to assert something that you know is always true, regardless of the external environment, if your code is right.

In other words, an assertion contains a condition which is always true if your code is bug-free, even in the presence of incorrect inputs or incorrect environment.

For instance, if your code is such that an index i shall always be less than some maximum value at the end of a loop, you may write assert(i < max).

Similarly, if you are about to write a data structure ds into a memory area ma which is defined as an array of uint8_t, you may write assert(sizeof(ds) <= sizeof(ma)) and then memcpy(&ma, &ds, sizeof(ds)).

But, under no circumstances, you should use some external condition such as an input parameter of the current function in an assertion. The semantic of an assertion is that it shall have no effect on correct code. The compiler may include or remove the assertion from the generated code and the execution of correct code should be exactly the same in both cases.

Checking an external or input parameter in an assertion is illegal since an invalid external condition is not a symptom of incorrect code (at least your code). If you use an input parameter in an assertion in correct code, this code will either run or fail in the presence of invalid input, depending on the compilation option.

The correct way of checking inputs is to use plain checking code, not assertions. In the presence of invalid inputs, write the appropriate error management path for the context (return an error code, log an error, perform a default action or whatever is required by the context).

Example:

Use assertions as often as necessary. When writing code, always try to locate all the implicit assumptions you make (data size, enum values ordering, etc.). Locate all the conditions that must be true and which would corrupt something if incorrect (final index values, counters, etc.) Assert all of this.

When writing code, you easily assume conditions. You know that they are true by design. But you may be wrong (nobody is perfect). And some future maintenance may break the design. So, even if this seems futile, write assertions on critical conditions.

And remember that assertions are automatically removed by the compiler in production code. So, do not hesitate to use assertions, they are performance-free on production code.

The reasons are the same as for the previous rule.

Such debug can typically only log debug information.

Be aware, however, that the presence of debug code may have a significant impact on timing.

Uninitialized variables are a common source of bugs which may be difficult to track.

Getting different behaviors on different platforms or versions depending on different unmanaged initial values is even worse.

Example:

All binary zero is often not appropriate as initial value for a data structure.

Each platform has its constraints on data alignment. The compiler takes them into account when representing a data structure. The same data structure may have different sizes or memory layout on different platforms.

Example:

The size of this structure may be 5 or 8 bytes, depending on the platform. The field b may be at offset 1 or 4 from the beginning of the structure.

If your code depends on the fact that b is assumed to be at a specific offset, you should assert this. The following example asserts that b is at offset 1 after a: